加拿大进出口外贸转贴：英文合同阅读与分析技巧

加拿大外贸

内容较长，慢慢看碰到实例大家可多讨论哈。



第一节英文合同的特点
  英美律师起草的合同无不深深地刻着英美法系私法原理的烙印，即高度私法自治和遵循先例。所表现出来的突出特点就是大多数英文合同篇幅长、惯用冗长句子和法言法语，但逻辑严密并且规律性很强。
  一个大项目的英文合同往往都是鸿篇巨制，篇幅达几百页。英美国家实行判例法，大陆法系实行成文法，成文法相对于判例法的重要区别就是比较稳定，而且合同很多内容法律都有直接规定，双方对于法律已经有规定的部分就无须在合同中作进一步的约定。但英美国家推行判例法，推行高度私法自治，成文法大多仅作为参考，不具有强制适用的性质，因此，合同方在订立合同的过程中享有高度订约自由，合同各方可以就任何问题按照自己的意愿作出自己认为合适的约定。订约自由是一项至高的原则，合同条文、文字所直接反映出来的当事人的意愿，法官不得轻易否决，必须予以最大限度的尊重。由于合同文字是法官解释合同文件、探悉合同当事人意愿的唯一依据，故合同各方都力求使合同结构完整、语义严密明确。为使语义严密明确，他们在合同中进行大量的定义，大量使用限定词、定语从句、状语从句，避免使用省略句，也尽量不使用有可能引起指代不明的代词。因此，对于同一个项目合同，按照英美法草拟的合同篇幅常常比按照大陆法草拟的合同篇幅长很多。
  英文合同的另一个重要特点就是其句子冗长。首先，一个长句的逻辑性往往比由几个简单句组成的一个段落的逻辑性更强，说理更为严密，从而最大限度地减小产生歧义的可能性。因此，英美律师在草拟合同的过程中比较青睐长句，而较少使用简单句。其次，如前所述，英美国家实行判例法。先例相较于大陆法系的成文法，其稳定性程度有所不如。由于各个法官的智识水平有别，先例本身之间就可能存在某些冲突，因此，合同当事人通常会在合同中想尽办法对这些已经有争议的先例进行规避，这就必须在合同中就某些可能产生争议的事项进行明确的表述，如常把一连串意义相关或相近的词放在一起以求全面而无疏漏。因而整个合同的句子显得冗长，但也因此获得整个合同的严谨，不易产生争议。
  “法言法语”在英文合同中也体现得比较充分。这些所谓的“法言法语”主要指一些中古英语和外来词汇，比如我们常见的 herein，hereof，whereby，inter alia等。这与英国语言发展历史以及英美推行判例法密切相关。西方文明在很大程度上可以说是法律的发展。希腊和罗马的法律精神通过日耳曼入侵，给英国造成的影响是不可估量的。英国在历史上曾经把语言作为阶级划分和阶级统治的重要手段。法语被视为西欧上层社会的语言，而拉丁文则常常是个人深造的首要选择。再加上法律界人士为了使法律这门职业具有独立性，突出本行业的优越性，也多采用一些特殊的语言，法律界人士普遍认为这些中古英语和外来词的使用可以使法律语言更加高贵、庄重。因此，法律英语词汇在词源上大量收录采用了拉丁语、法语、德语和西班牙语中的法律词汇，如null and void（无效）、ad hoc（特别，临时）、lex situs（物所在地法）、vice versa（反之亦然）、 prima facie（表面的,初步的）和inter alia（除了别的之外，其中包括）。为了显示法律语言的神圣性、权威性和严密性，还大量沿用中古英语，以区别于普通英语(common English), 如aforesaid（如前所述）、hereinafter（在下文）、 hereunder（在……以下）、herein（此中）、therein（在那里）、whereby（因此,由是）、hereby（借此）等。它们能使语言精练,有点类似于中国的文言文，洗练而且直观。这些词经常出现在法律条文中,如不好好掌握就会影响阅读。尽管现代社会中,这类“文言文”用语已逐渐减少，尤其以美国英语为代表的法律英语，就倾向于运用简单明了的常用词汇来表达法律意思,即简明的常用语言(plain English)。但这项运动还远没有达到消灭这些“文言文”的时候，因此，阅读中还会大量遇到这种“文言文”。
  其实，英文合同最重要的特点是其严密的逻辑性和很强的规律性。尽管英美法系国家主张私法高度意思自治，但是在草拟合同过程中，过多地偏离先例，除非有非常高水平的律师，否则很难说合同能够严密明确，保证没有任何争议。即使能够找到这样的律师，但为此而付出的律师成本和风险成本太高。因此，一般情况下，绝大多数合同还是选择遵从先例，尽量采用先前法官所认可的语言和逻辑结构，这样，合同专业词汇和逻辑结构经过千百年的积累逐渐固定下来，形成了很强的规律性。比如，在合同结构方面，一份完整的英文合同通常由四部分构成，即标题（Title）、序言（Recitals）、主文条款（Terms and Conditions）和结尾。在合同用词方面，合同用a material breach 表示“重大违约”或“严重违约”，而不用serious breach；用terminate表示“合同终止”，而不用finish；用commence 表示“开始”，而不用或少用start 或begin；等等。再比如，英文合同中的代词一般指代该代词前面的最后一个可以指代的名词，如 “Nokia shall give a copy of this Instruction to Contractor and it shall strictly comply” 中“it”就指代“Contractor”，而不是指代“Nokia”。如果合同要求是“Nokia”必须严格遵守，则这里就不能用代词“it”，而只能用“Nokia shall strictly comply”。另外，合同中的限定词、限定短语、限定句子也相对比较固定，比如，常见的如 herein, hereof, subject to, save as, except as, provided that, notwithstanding, without prejudice to 以及大量的定语从句和状语从句的使用都已约定俗成。从这个角度来说，合同有很强的规律性可循。因此，找出并驾驭这些语言规律，就能够熟练地阅读英文合同。
  由于合同的结构和使用的语言都比较固定，因此合同中每一部分法律风险位于何处，主文条款隐藏哪些主要风险，也都相对比较固定。换句话说，合同风险所处的位置也有很多规律可循。这就为我们分析英文合同提供了可能。比如，在标题部分，我们就得注意标题是否含有“subject”，因为 “subject”这个词表明本合同生效还必须满足一定的条件，如果合同当事人希望本合同签字生效，但因在标题部分有这么一个词，可能被法官认定为不存在一个有效的合同。另外，在“适用法律”(governing law)条款部分，如果适用外国法，合同中所表述的有些术语可能和中国法中的某些术语含义就不一致，英国法中的不当得利和中国法中的不当得利就存在较大的差别，而德国法下的合伙和中国法下的合伙也不一样。如果适用美国法，就得考虑《美国出口管理条例》 (American Export Administration Regulation)，因为根据这个法律，凡是采购来自美国的商品，其最终用户不得是美国认定的“流氓”国家，如果你采购的商品用于伊朗的石油开采，则这个合同很可能无法执行。总之，这些合同风险与合同语言一样，在很大程度上也比较固定，读者只需掌握这些风险，分析合同风险就可以驾轻就熟。

评论
（二）“普通词”转为“法言法语”
  中国从小学开始教授英文，但主要教授的是英文的普通用法，而对合同中常用的一些由普通词转化成“法言法语”的词则少有触及。比如，“shall”在我们的英文学习中往往只强调其“助动词表将来”的作用，而很少强调其“助动词表义务”这个功能，但合同中后一种用法比比皆是，前一种用法反而比较少见。例如，the Federation Internationale des IngenieursConseil (FIDIC) 红皮书（国际工程标准合同）一个合同就用了751个“shall”，而EPC银皮书（国际工程标准合同）一个合同也用了690个“shall”，并且都是使用的“助动词表义务”这个词义。对这些由普通词转化而来的“法言法语”，笔者将在下面分别予以详述：
  1.“shall”
  “shall”用在合同中，同样是助动词，后面跟实意动词，表示“……有义务做某事”、“……得做某事”、“……应做某事”等，强调法律上的一种义务，违反这种义务就意味着违约。只有在极少数情况下用“...shall have the right to...”或 “...shall be entitled to...”，表示“……有权做某事”。当然，“must”也可以用来表示“必须”，但其“法言法语”意味远没有“shall”浓厚，因此，在日常的英文合同中，“shall”更多地得到律师和法官的偏爱。
  例1摘自FIDIC银皮书第1.7条〔Assignment〕和第1.9条〔Confidentiality〕。 1.7 Neither Party shall assign the whole or any part of the Contract or any benefit or interest in or under the Contract. 合同任何一方均不得将本合同的全部或任何部分，或本合同中规定的或根据本合同所具有的任何利益或权益转让给他人。
  1.9 Confidentiality
  Both Parties shall treat the details of the Contract as private and confidential, except to the extent necessary to carry out obligations under it or to comply with applicable Laws. The Contractor shall not  publish, permit to be punished, or disclose any particulars of the Works in any trade or technical paper or elsewhere without the previous agreement of the Employer.
  合同双方应将合同各种细节详情视为秘密，但为履行本合同义务或遵守适用的法律所必需的除外。没有雇主事先同意，承包商不得在任何商务往来或技术论文或其他场合发表或允许（他人）发表或透露工程的任何细节。英文合同阅读与分析技巧0第一章英文合同阅读技巧0例2摘自FIDIC红皮书。 The Contractor shall keep, on the Site, a copy of the Contract, publications named in the Specification, the Contractors documents (if any), the Drawings and Variations and other communications given under the Contract. The Employers Personnel shall have the right of access to all these documents at all reasonable times.
  承包商应在现场保留一份合同的复印件、规范中列出的所有文件、承包商的文件(如有)、图纸和变更以及其他根据合同收发的往来信函。雇主工作人员应有权在任何合理时间查看和使用所有这些文件。 The Contractor shall disclose all such confidential and other information as the Engineer may reasonably require in order to verify the Contractors compliance with the Contract.
  承包商应按照工程师的合理要求披露这些保密事项和其他情况，以证实其确实遵守合同。例3摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第76条第1款。If the contract is avoided and there is a current price for the goods, the party claiming damages may, if he has not made a purchase or resale under article 75, recover the difference between the price fixed by the contract and the current price at the time of avoidance as well as any further damages recoverable under article 74. If, however, the party claiming damages has avoided the contract after taking over the goods, the current price at the time of such taking over shall be applied instead of the current price at the time of avoidance.
  如果合同被宣告无效，而货物又有时价，要求损害赔偿的一方，如果没有根据第75条规定进行购买或转卖，则可以取得合同规定的价格和宣告合同无效时的时价之间的差额以及按照第74条规定可以取得的任何其他损害赔偿。但是，如果要求损害赔偿的一方在接收货物之后宣告合同无效，则应适用接收货物时的时价，而不适用宣告合同无效时的时价。例 4By written notice to the SELLER, the BUYER REPRESENTATIVE may at any time delegate any of his authority to any nominated deputy. Such notice shall specify the precise authority of any such deputy and shall be sent to the SELLER REPRESENTATIVE.
  买方代表可以在任何时候书面通知卖方将其权力授权给指定的代理人。但这种授权通知应指明该代理人的确切权力，并应送交卖方代表。
  2.“must”当然，今天有些律师开始提倡使用朴素的合同语言，而不是律师所惯常使用的法言法语，因此“must”使用的频率逐渐上升。比如《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》就使用了35个“must”，而只有六处使用了“shall”。例1《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第30条。 The seller must deliver the goods, hand over any documents relating to them and transfer the property in the goods, as required by the contract and this Convention.
  卖方必须按照合同和本公约的规定交付货物，移交一切与货物有关的单据并转移货物所有权。
  例2《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第32条。(1) If the seller, in accordance with the contract or this Convention, hands the goods over to a carrier and if the goods are not clearly identified to the contract by markings on the goods, by shipping documents or otherwise, the seller must give the buyer notice of the consignment specifying the goods. (2) If the seller is bound to arrange for carriage of the goods, he must make such contracts as are necessary for carriage to the place fixed by means of transportation appropriate in the circumstances and according to the usual terms for such transportation.
  （1）如果卖方按照合同或本公约的规定将货物交付给承运人，但货物没有以货物上加标记，或以装运单据或其他方式清楚地注明有关合同，卖方必须向买方发出列明货物的发货通知。
  （2）如果卖方有义务安排货物的运输，他必须订立必要的合同，以按照通常运输条件，用适合情况的运输工具，把货物运到指定地点。
  不过，《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》是多国博弈的结果，比如在货物所有权转移问题上，《公约》第4条(b)款明确予以排除，主要是考虑到世界各国对所有权问题的规定分歧太大,无法协调和统一。另外，为了这个合同能够在更广范围内得到适用，合同在语言使用上肯定会比较白话一些。但现实生活中，英国和美国的律师在起草合同时如果想要表示“一方有义务做某事”，还是较少使用“must”，而更多地使用“shall”。
  另外，还应该看到，由于美国英语和英国英语以及其他国家的英语对“shall”和“will”的意义在理解上存在差别，因此，为了表明主文条款中的内容都是合同方的意愿，而非表示某个将来的动作或者状态，一般会在合同“whereas部分”结束后出现 “Therefore, the Parties agree as follows”或 “It is therefore agreed as follows”。这样，即使主文条款中用了“Party A will”也表明该合同方愿意受到本合同约束的意志。
  3.“where”
  英文合同中的“where”和普通英文中的“where”通常都引导状语从句，但意义差别较大。在英文合同中，“where”引导的状语从句，常用来限定合同“当事人在什么情况下应为或不为什么事”，译为“在……时”、“当……时”或“……的”（相当于汉语中的“‘的’字结构”），汉语意义看似类似于英文的“when”，但“where”引导的不是表示时间，而是表示一种状况，有时可以用“if”等表示条件的词来代替。例1FIDIC银皮书第20.5条。 Where notice of dissatisfaction has been given under SubClause 20.4 above, both Parties shall attempt to settle the dispute amicably before the commencement of arbitration...
  如果已经按照上述第20.4款发出了表示不满的通知，双方应在着手仲裁前，努力以友好方式来解决争端……
  例2CISG第35条第（2）款（d）项和第55条。 Article 35(2) Except where the parties have agreed otherwise, the goods do not conform with the contract unless they are contained or packaged in the manner usual for such goods or, where there is no such manner, in a manner adequate to preserve and protect the goods.
  第35条（2）除非货物按照同类货物通用的方式装箱或包装，或如果没有此种通用方式，则按照足以保全和保护货物的方式装箱或包装，否则，货物即为与合同不符，但合同方另有约定的除外。“where the parties have agreed otherwise”就表示“合同方另有约定的情况”，而“where there is no such manner”则表示“没有这种通用方式的情况”。
  Article 55Where a contract has been validly concluded but does not expressly or implicitly fix or make provision for determining the price, the parties are considered, in the absence of any indication to the contrary, to have impliedly made reference to the price generally charged at the time of the conclusion of the contract for such goods sold under comparable circumstances in the trade concerned.
  第55条如果合同已有效地订立，但没有明示或暗示地规定价格或规定如何确定价格，在没有任何相反表示的情况下，双方当事人应视为已默示地引用订立合同时此种货物在相关交易的类似情况下销售的通常价格。“Where a contract has been validly concluded but does not expressly or implicitly fix or make provision for determining the price” 表示“合同已经有效订立，但没有明示或暗示地规定价格或规定如何确定价格”这种情况。“Where”在这里用“if”来代替也可以表达出合同方的意图。例 3Where a foreigner, enterprise applies for trademark registration in China, the matter shall be handled in accordance with any agreement concluded between the country to which the applicant belongs and the Peoples Republic of China, or any international treaty to which both countries are parties, or on the basis of the principle of reciprocity.
  外国人或者外国企业在中国申请商标注册的,应当按其所属国和中华人民共和国签订的协议或者共同参加的国际条约办理,或者按对等原则办理。

评论
4.“advise”
  “advise”在日常英语中表示“建议”，但在英文合同中出现时，常表示“通知”，和“notify”很多时候可以互换。例 1The Seller shall advise the Buyer all the information with regard to the Bill of Lading after the goods boarding on the ship.
  卖方应在货物装载上船后就有关提单事项的所有信息通知买方。例 2Buyer shall advise Seller of the nomination of the vessel and advise documentation instructions by written notice to Seller at least 5 working days prior to the 1st day of above loading date range for Sellers review and acceptance.
  买方应就指定船只通知卖方，并且在货物装载期间的第1天前提前5天书面通知卖方各种文件指示说明，以供卖方审核接受。例3以下摘自《中华人民共和国政府和美利坚合众国政府关于海关互助的协定》（Agreement between the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Government of the United States of America regarding Mutual Assistance in Customs Matters）。 Article 2(4) In case the Customs administration of the requested Party is not the appropriate agency to comply with a request for assistance, it shall transmit the request to the appropriate agency, and seek the cooperation of that agency. The requesting Customs administration shall be so advised...
  如被请求方海关当局并非执行某项协助请求的合适部门，该海关当局应将该项请求转送有关部门并谋求该部门的合作。此情况应通知请求方海关当局……Article 10(2) The requested Customs administration shall, if it so requests, be advised of the time and place of the action to be taken in response to the request so that such action may be coordinated.
  如请求方海关当局要求，被请求方海关当局应将为执行协助请求而采取行动的时间及地点通知请求方海关当局，以协调该行动。例4FIDIC银皮书第6.5条。No work shall be carried out on the Site on locally recognized days of rest, or outside normal working hours, unless:
  …
  (c) the work is unavoidable, or necessary for the protection of life or property or for the safety of the Works, in which case the Contractor shall immediately advise the Employer.
  承包商不得在当地公认的休息日或正常工作时间之外开展工作，除非：
  ……
  （c）该项工作是为了保护生命财产或为了工程安全而无法避免或必须开展的，但在这种情况下，承包商应立即通知雇主。例 5The BUYER shall have the right at any time within the duration of the PURCHASE ORDER to make any changes in the PURCHASE ORDER by additions, deletions, substitutions, modifications or revisions thereto. The BUYER shall advise the SELLER of such changes by issuing written instructions in accordance with the ADMINISTRATION PROCEDURES.
  买方有权在本订单有效期内的任何时候对订单进行变更，包括增加、删减、替换、变更或修正。但买方应按照管理程序通过书面指示通知卖方所做的这些变更。
  例6The SELLER shall advise the BUYER if such requirements are in SELLERS opinion, based on the information given by the BUYER, inadequate for the intended purpose of the Agreement.
  如果在卖方看来，基于买方提供的信息，这些要求不足以满足本协议所欲达到的目的，则卖方应通知买方。
  例7On the occurrence of event of Force Majeure the party claiming to be affected thereby shall keep the other party fully advised of the detailed information thereof.
  如果发生不可抗力，声称遭受不可抗力影响的一方应让合同另一方全部知晓有关不可抗力的详细情况。
  5.“save/except”
  “save”在普通英语中常用作“挽救”、“节约”等意思，作动词用，但在英文合同中通常用作连词，表示“除……以外”，它与 “except”的用法差不多，因此以下将这两个词放在一起来谈。例 1Save as aforesaid, words or expressions contained in this Attachment shall, bear the same meanings as in the Agreement.
  除了前面所说，本附件中所有用词和表述与协议中的用词和表述意思相同。
  例 2Except as expressly stated in the PURCHASE ORDER, the BUYER REPRESENTATIVE has no power to amend, extend or terminate the PURCHASE ORDER nor to waive any rights of the BUYER in respect of any antecedent breaches of the PURCHASE ORDER.
  除了本采购订单明确表示外，买方代表无权变更、延长或终止本采购订单，也无权放弃买方享有的因卖方先前违约而产生的权利。例 3Each Party hereto agrees to keep this Agreement and the provisions hereof confidential and shall not disclose any information in relation to this Agreement (other than to its legal, financial or other advisers) except with the prior consent of all the other parties or save as otherwise required by law.
  协议各方同意，除了事先获得协议其他所有签约方同意或除了法律有相反规定之外，对本协议以及协议条款予以保密，有关本协议的信息不得向外披露（但向律师、财务或其他顾问披露的除外）。例 4Both Parties agree, any disclosure of the Confidential Information to any other third party is not permitted save that such third party has the obligation to fulfil part of the Work herein and has committed to keep confidential the Confidential Information.
  双方同意，保密信息不得披露给任何第三方，但如果第三方有义务完成本协议下部分工作且承诺对保密信息保密的除外。例 5Save in so far as it is legally or physically impossible, the SELLER shall provide the Site Assistance in strict accordance with PURCHASE ORDER to the satisfaction of the BUYER REPRESENTATIVE.
  除非在法律上或者事实上不可行，卖方应严格按照采购订单要求提供令买方代表满意的现场服务。

评论
6.“under”
  “under”在普通英文中表示“在……下”，但在英文合同中通常用来表示“根据……”，并且这种用法在英文合同中极为常见，《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》中一共有47处用了“under”，其中有43处用法皆表示“根据……”、“依据……”。FIDIC银皮书共208处用了 “under”，而红皮书则有210处，大部分也都是后一种用法。因此，“under this Contract”表示“根据/依据本协议”；“under the laws of PRC”表示“根据/依据中华人民共和国法律”；“under Article 5”表示“根据/依据第5 条”。“根据本公约”，我们可以用“under this Convention”，而“根据前款规定”，则用 “under the preceding paragraph”。例1《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第42条（1）、第45条(1)和第48条（4）。 Article 42(1)The seller must deliver goods which are free from any right or claim of a third party based on industrial property or other intellectual property, of which at the time of the conclusion of the contract the seller knew or could not have been unaware, provided that the right or claim is based on industrial property or other intellectual property: (a) under the law of the State where the goods will be resold or otherwise used, if it was contemplated by the parties at the time of the conclusion of the contract that the goods would be resold or otherwise used in that State;
  第42条（1）卖方所交付的货物，必须是第三方不能根据工业产权或其他知识产权主张任何权利或要求的货物，但以卖方在订立合同时已知道或不可能不知道的权利或要求为限，而且这种权利或要求根据以下国家的法律规定是以工业产权或其他知识产权为基础的：
  （ａ）如果双方当事人在订立合同时预期货物将在某一国境内转售或做其他使用，则根据货物将在其境内转售或做其他适用的国家的法律；或者 Article 45 (1) If the seller fails to perform any of his obligations under the contract or this Convention, the buyer may: (a) exercise the rights provided in articles 46 to 52; (b) claim damages as provided in articles 74 to 77.
  第45条（1）如果卖方不履行其根据本合同和本公约中所承担的任何义务，买方可以：
  （ａ）行使第46条至第52条所规定的权利；
  （ｂ）按照第74条至第77条的规定，要求损害赔偿。Article 48 (4) A request or notice by the seller under paragraph (2) or (3) of this article is not effective unless received by the buyer.
  第48条（4）卖方按照本条第（2）款和第（3）款作出的要求或通知，必须在买方收到后，始生效力。例2FIDIC 红皮书 1.10。 The Contractors documents and other design documents made by (or on behalf of) the Contractor shall not, without the Contractors consent, be used, copied or communicated to a third party by (or on behalf of) the Employer for purposes other than those permitted under this SubClause.
  未经承包商同意，雇主不得出于本款规定以外的任何目的为第三方复印、使用或传输承包商的文件及其他任何由承包商(或承包商授权的人员)编制的设计文件。例3FIDIC银皮书5.5。 The Contractor shall carry out the training of Employer’s Personnel in the operation and maintenance of the Works to the extent specified in the Employer’s Requirements. If the Contract specifies training which is to be carried out before takingover under SubClause 10.1 〔TakingOver of the Works and Sections〕 until this training has been completed.
  承包商应按照业主要求中规定的范围，对雇主人员进行工程操作和维修培训。如果合同规定了工程接收前应进行培训，在此项培训结束前，不应认为工程已经按照第10.1款〔工程和分项工程的接收〕规定的接收要求竣工。
  7.“whereas”
  “whereas”在普通英语中表示“然而、但是”等转折意义，在英文合同的主文条款中，其意义和普通英语中的意义差别不大，仍然表示一种转折，意思是“然而、但是”。但在英文合同的序言部分，“whereas”的意思发生了很大改变，一般用于简单介绍合同各方的签约背景和签约目的，译为“鉴于”。例在一个股权收购协议中：
  WHEREAS:
  (A) The Seller is the owner of the entire member interest in the Target Company；
  (B) The Seller wishes to sell and the Buyer wishes to buy the Member Interest on the terms and subject to the conditions of this Agreement.
  THE PARTIES AGREE as follows:
  鉴于
  （A）卖方拥有目标公司的全部权益；
  （B）卖方意欲按照本协议条件出售，而买方准备按照本协议条件购买这些权益。
  因此，双方协议如下：
  由于我们在合同结构部分会详细介绍“whereas”，故在此只是简单提及。

评论
8.“provided”
  “provided”在合同中极为常见，如《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》就有21 处使用了“provided”。“provided”在英文合同中常见的意思有两种，其一作动词，表示“规定”；其二作连词，表示“如果”，常用来表示“一方在满足某种条件的情况下才享受某种权利或者承担某种义务”，其实就是一种前提条件，必须满足这一条件，才有资格享受权利或者才应承担某种义务。下面就这两种常见意思分别予以阐述：
  （1）“provided”作动词，表示“规定”例1摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第45条（1）。 45 (1) If the seller fails to perform any of his obligations under the contract or this Convention, the buyer may:
  (a) exercise the rights provided in articles 46 to 52;
  (b) claim damages as provided in articles 74 to 77.
  第45条（1）如果卖方不履行他在合同和本公约中的任何义务，买方可以：
  （ａ）行使第46条至第52条所规定的权利；
  （ｂ）按照第74条至第77条的规定，要求损害赔偿。
  例2Except in the case of breach of this AGREEMENT by PARTY A or termination of this AGREEMENT as provided in Section 1.1 hereof, any and all payments of amounts due under this AGREEMENT are nonrefundable.
  除甲方违反本协议，或本协议按照其第1.1 条规定的情形被终止，本协议项下到期应付的所有款项均不退还。例 3The Seller shall make the delivery of the Goods at the destination specified in the Contract.
  卖方应在合同规定的目的地交货。例4The provisions provided for in this clause shall not prejudice the Buyer’s right of termination.
  本条规定不得影响买方终止合同的权利。
  （2）“provided”作连词，表示“如果”例1以下摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第37条、第73条（2）和第87条。 Article 37 If the seller has delivered goods before the date for delivery, he may, up to that date, deliver any missing part or make up any deficiency in the quantity of the goods delivered, or deliver goods in replacement of any nonconforming goods delivered or remedy any lack of conformity in the goods delivered, provided that the exercise of this right does not cause the buyer unreasonable inconvenience or unreasonable expense. However, the buyer retains any right to claim damages as provided for in this Convention.
  第37条如果卖方在交货日期前交付货物，他可以在那个日期到达前，交付任何缺漏部分或补足所交付货物的不足数量，或交付用以替换所交付不符合同规定的货物，或对所交付货物中任何不符合同规定的情形做出补救，不过，此一权利的行使不得使买方遭受不合理的不便或承担不合理的开支。但是，买方保留本公约所规定的要求损害赔偿的任何权利。即前提条件是“此一权利的行使不得使买方遭受不合理的不便或承担不合理的开支”。 Article 73（2）If one partys failure to perform any of his obligations in respect of any installment gives the other party good grounds to conclude that a fundamental breach of contract will occur with respect to future installments, he may declare the contract avoided for the future, provided that he does so within a reasonable time.
  第73条（2）如果一方当事人不履行对任何一批货物的义务，使另一方当事人有充分理由断定对今后各批货物将会发生根本违约，该另一方当事人可以在一段合理时间内宣告合同向后无效。前提条件就是要求“在合理的时间内”。Article 87 A party who is bound to take steps to preserve the goods may deposit them in a warehouse of a third person at the expense of the other party provided that the expense incurred is not unreasonable.
  第87条有义务采取措施以保全货物的一方当事人，可以把货物寄放在第三方的仓库，由另一方当事人担负费用，但该项费用必须合理。前提条件是“费用合理”。9.“conclude”
  “conclude”在普通英文中常表示“总结”或“得出结论”，但在英文合同中，则常用来表示合同“签署”、“签订”等，试看下例：例 1This Agreement is concluded for unlimited duration, but each Party may, at any time, request its termination by serving a written notice to the other Party. The present Agreement shall cease to be in force on the ninetieth (90) day following the date of the other Party’s receipt of the notice of termination.
  本合同长期有效。但合同任何一方可在任何时候书面通知对方要求终止本合同。本合同将自另一方收到该合同终止通知书第90天起失效。例2下面几个例子摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》第11条、第16条、第23条、第55条和第100条。Article 11 A contract of sale need not be concluded in or evidenced by writing and is not subject to any other requirement as to form. It may be proved by any means, including witnesses.
  第11条销售合同无须以书面订立或书面证明，在形式方面也不受任何其他条件的限制。销售合同可以用包括人证在内的任何方法证明。
  Article 16 Until a contract is concluded an offer may be revoked if the revocation reaches the offeree before he has dispatched an acceptance.
  第16条在未订立合同之前，如果撤销通知于要约送达被要约人之前或同时送达被要约人，要约可以撤销。Article 23 A contract is concluded at the moment when an acceptance of an offer becomes effective in accordance with the provisions of this Convention.
  第23条合同于按照本公约规定对要约的接受生效时订立。Article 55 Where a contract has been validly concluded but does not expressly or implicitly fix or make provision for determining the price, the parties are considered, in the absence of any indication to the contrary, to have impliedly made reference to the price generally charged at the time of the conclusion of the contract for such goods sold under comparable circumstances in the trade concerned.
  第55条如果合同已有效地订立，但没有明示或暗示地规定价格或规定如何确定价格，在没有任何相反表示的情况下，合同方应视为已默示地引用订立合同时此种货物在相关交易的类似情况下销售的通常价格。 Article 100(1) This Convention applies to the formation of a contract only when the proposal for concluding the contract is made on or after the date when the Convention enters into force in respect of the Contracting States referred to in subparagraph (1)(a) or the Contracting State referred to in subparagraph (1)(b) of article 1.(2) This Convention applies only to contracts concluded on or after the date when the Convention enters into force in respect of the Contracting States referred to in subparagraph (1)(a) or the Contracting State referred to in subparagraph (1)(b) of article 1.
  第100条（1） 本公约适用于合同的订立，但订立该合同的建议应在本公约对第1条第（1）款（a）项所指缔约国或第1条第（1）款（b）项所指缔约国生效之日或其后作出。
  （2）本公约只适用于在它对第1条第（1）款(a)项所指缔约国或第1条第（1）款（b)项所指缔约国生效之日或其后订立的合同。

评论
10.“as”
  “as”在普通英语中的用法很多，既可以做副词、介词、代词，又可做连词引导时间状语从句、让步状语从句和方式状语从句。但在英文合同中，除了固定短语外，as常用作连词引导方式状语从句，表示“正如……所（规定、要求）的那样”、“根据……所（规定、要求）的那样”、“按照……所（规定、要求）的那样”。下面就此作简单讨论。例 1Article 30 The seller must deliver the goods, hand over any documents relating to them and transfer the property in the goods, as required by the contract and this Convention.(From CISG)
  第30条卖方必须按照合同和本公约的规定，交付货物，移交一切与货物有关的单据，并转移货物所有权。即“按照合同和本公约规定的那样”履行交货和移交单据等义务。例 2Article 53 The buyer must pay the price for the goods and take delivery of them as required by the contract and this Convention. （From CISG)
  第53条买方必须按照合同和本公约规定的那样支付货物价款并收取货物(摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》)。例 3The SELLER shall keep the BUYER fully informed of the progress of the transportation and shall comply with the reporting requirements as set out within the PURCHASE ORDER.
  卖方应始终让买方全部知晓运输进展，并遵守采购订单所规定的汇报要求，即“按照采购订单规定的那样”。例 4If required under the delivery terms as stipulated in the PURCHASE ORDER, the SELLER shall be responsible for the provision of on/offloading of GOODS.
  如果买方根据采购订单所规定的运输条件要求，卖方应负责提供装卸货物。A CHANGE ORDER shall in no way affect any other rights or obligations of the parties except as expressly provided for in that CHANGE ORDER.
  变更单不得影响合同方的其他权利和义务，变更单中明确规定的除外。
  11.其他
  英文合同中用来表示“规定”的词非常丰富，除了前面已经谈及的“provide”，还有很多，比如 “specify”、“define”和 “prescribe”，“contain”也经常这样用，只是意义稍有不同。试看下面这些例子：例 1The company may from time to time by ordinary resolution increase the share capital by such sum to be divided into shares of such amount as the resolution shall prescribe.
  经普通决议，公司可随时将股本增加到等同于决议所规定的股额和股数的数额。例2The license fee depends on the nature of the rights granted as defined in Article 3.
  许可费由第三条规定所授予的权利性质而定。例3The furnishing of a Certificate of Insurance as aforesaid, or other documents of insurance shall not be interpreted as implying that the BUYER assumes responsibility for the correctness of such policies or documents or that the SELLER has complied with its other obligations contained in this PURCHASE ORDER or relieve the SELLER of any obligation or liability under the PURCHASE ORDER.  
  （卖方）按照前述规定提供保险单证或其他保险单据不应被解释为买方应负责承担这些保单或单据的准确性，也不应被解释为卖方已经遵守了本采购订单中规定的其他义务或解除卖方在本采购订单下的其他义务或责任。
  英文合同中，对时间的表达在很大程度上能够反映律师的合同起草水平，这些用语往往在需要精确表达某个时间的时候使用，而合同中时间概念无疑是非常重要的，因此，对于时间的表达则出现了一道独特风景。对于起止时间，究竟是否包括本数很容易产生争议，为了避免这种争议，合同起草者有时会在定义部分明确规定起止时间均包括本数，但更多的时候是在具体的时间处用一些特殊的短语来表示，以达到准确表达是否包括起止时间本数。比如，“买方应于2007年 12月31日之前将本合同货款支付给卖方”。对于“2007年12月31日之前”，通常大家会使用“before December 31, 2007” 或“by December 31, 2007”，但这两种表示方式都可能对是否包含“2007年12月31日”这个本数存在争议。当然，在我国民法通则中对“以前”、“以上”和“以下”等作了法律规定，但英文合同中，可能适用的法律并不是中国法，则是否包括“本数”就存在不确定因素。为避免这种争议，合同常用“on and before”来表示“包括本数”，这样的案例很多。为了小心起见，我们常用“on and before” 代替“before”，表达“包含本数”，用“from and including”或“from and excluding”代替“after”，表示“包含本数”或“不包含本数”，用“to and including”或“to but excluding”代替“until”或“till”，用“from and including/excluding...to including/excluding”代替 “between...and...”等。

评论
二、制式短语
  英语中有很多制式短语，这些短语也经常成为读者的阅读障碍。本书将合同中经常使用的制式短语挑拣出来，对其意义进行分析，并对其用法进行简要说明。这些制式短语包括 Subject to,  notwithstanding, without prejudice to, to the extent, the same, to that effect, in one’s discretion 等。以下分别对其作分析和说明。
  
  （一）subject to, notwithstanding, without prejudice to
  由于这三种表述在意义上有很多相似之处，因此，笔者将它们放在一起进行阐述。
  1.“subject to”
  相比之下，“subject to”在英文合同中最为常用，该词在FIDIC红皮书和EPC银皮书两个合同中分别使用了25次，在《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》中使用了11次，可见其使用频率。在英文合同中，“subject to”通常用来表示“视……而定”、“以……为条件”，即必须优先满足“subject to”之后的条件，下面举例予以说明：例 1The SELLER REPRESENTATIVE shall be an employee of the SELLER. The appointment, change, or any delegation of the authority of, the SELLER REPRESENTATIVE and any terms thereof shall be subject to prior approval by the BUYER, which shall not be unreasonably withheld or delayed.
  卖方代表必须是卖方的雇员。卖方代表的任命、变更或授权以及任何这方面的条件都必须得到买方的事先批准，但买方不得无故拒绝或拖延。
  卖方是否可以任命、变更或授权卖方代表得视买方的批准而定，“买方的批准”即为这里的条件。例 2Unless expressly otherwise provided for in any CHANGE ORDER, all rates and prices stated herein are fixed and not subject to any revision, escalation, or adjustment whether due to currency fluctuations or otherwise.
  除非变更单中明确做出不同规定，否则，本合同所确定的所有费用和价格都是固定的，不得进行修改、涨价或调整，是否因为货币波动或其他原因概不例外。例3摘自FIDIC红皮书。 If the Contractor fails to comply with SubClause 8.2 〔Time for Completion〕, the Contractor shall subject to SubClause 2.5 〔Employers Claims〕 pay delay damages to the Employer for this default. These delay damages shall be the sum stated in the Appendix to Tender, which shall be paid for every day which shall elapse between the relevant Time for Completion and the date stated in the TakingOver Certificate. However, the total amount due under this SubClause shall not exceed the maximum amount of delay damages (if any) stated in the Appendix to Tender.
  如果承包商未能遵守第8.2款竣工时间，承包商应依据第2.5款雇主的索赔为此违约向雇主支付误期损害赔偿费。这笔误期损害赔偿费是指投标函附录中注明的金额，即自相应的竣工时间起至接收证书注明的日期止的每日支付。但全部应付款额不应超过投标函附录中规定的误期损失的最高限额（如有时）。
  “subject to”后面的就是承包商付款的限制条件，即合同第2.5款规定。相对于本条款，应优先考虑第2.5款。例4摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》。 Article 48(1) Subject to article 49, the seller may, even after the date for delivery, remedy at his own expense any failure to perform his obligations, if he can do so without unreasonable delay and without causing the buyer unreasonable inconvenience or uncertainty of reimbursement by the seller of expenses advanced by the buyer. However, the buyer retains any right to claim damages as provided for in this Convention.
  第48条 （1）在满足第49条的条件下，卖方即使在交货日期之后，仍可自付费用，对任何不履行义务做出补救，但这种补救不得造成不合理的迟延，也不得使买方遭受不合理的不便，或无法确定卖方是否将偿付买方预付的费用。但是，买方保留本公约所规定的要求损害赔偿的任何权利。
  第49条是关于买方在什么情况下可以宣告合同无效的条款；也就是说只有在买方没有对合同宣布无效的情况下，卖方才可以在交货日期之后自付费用实施第48条所述的补救。如果买方已经宣布合同无效，则卖方就无权再实施第48条所述的补救。 Article 6 The parties may exclude the application of this Convention or, subject to article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions.
  第6条双方当事人可以不适用本公约，或在满足第12条的条件下，减损本公约的任何规定或改变其效力。
  即只有在满足第12条的条件下，方可减损本公约的任何规定或改变其效力。第12条是讲在什么情况下不得减损公约。因此，一旦满足第12条的条件，就得优先适用第12条， 第6条不得适用。例 5Subject to Article 29 hereof, the annual general meeting shall be held at such time and place as the Board shall appoint.
  根据第29条规定，每年的股东大会应在董事会制定的时间和地点举行。 优先适用第29条。
  需要引起注意的是“Subject as hereinafter provided”有时表示 “subject to the following provisions of this Clause”，也可能表示 “subject to the following provisions of this Agreement”。为避免表达不清，最好指明具体条款。

评论
2.“notwithstanding”
  尽管“notwithstanding”仅仅是一个词，但因为它和“subject to”使用的效果正好相反，为便于比较，也放在这里来讲。通常情况下，“notwithstanding”表示“尽管……但……”，“notwithstanding”后面所接的内容应放在次要位置予以考虑。例 1Neither the BUYER nor the SELLER shall be liable one to the other for any delay or failure to perform its obligations under the PURCHASE AGREEMENT where and to the extent such delay or failure is caused by Force Majeure.Notwithstanding the foregoing, the BUYER’s obligation to pay the PURCHASE AGREEMENT PRICE, or any other sums due under the PURCHASE AGREEMENT, is not so suspended.
  买方和卖方对因不可抗力造成的履行迟延或无法履行彼此不承担任何责任。
  尽管有前述规定，但买方支付采购订单价格的义务或其他到期款项并不因此推迟。也就是说，即使发生了不可抗力，买方照常付款，不得延迟。
  如果把这里的“notwithstanding”替换成“subject to”，即 “Subject to the foregoing, the Buyer’s obligation to pay the Purchase Agreement Price, or any other sums due under the Purchase Agreement, is not so suspended”，则效果正好相反：买方不得延迟付款，但上述规定除外。换句话说，如果例1中用“Notwithstanding the foregoing”，则表示 “发生不可抗力，买方应照常付款，不得迟延”；但如果例1 中用“Subject to the foregoing”，则表示“如果发生不可抗力，买方就可以延迟付款”。例 2Notwithstanding any other provision of the Contract, if the Contractor intends to claim any additional payment pursuant to any Clause of these Conditions or otherwise, he shall give notice to his intention to the Engineer, with a copy to the Employer, within 28 days after the event giving rise to the claim has first arisen.
  尽管本合同有其他任何规定，如果承包商根据本合同的任何条款或其他有关规定打算索取任何追加付款，他都应在引起索赔的事件第一次发生后28天内，将其索赔意向通知工程师，并将一份副本呈交业主。
  “Notwithstanding”后紧跟“any other provision of this Agreement”，则表明本条款就其所规定的内容在整个合同中处于最优先考虑的地位，任何其他条款都不得同它抵触，即使抵触，也以本条款为准。如果一个协议中出现了两个条款都有 “Notwithstanding any other provision of the Contract”，则二者很可能发生冲突，阅读时候一定要多注意。
  3.“without prejudice to”
  “without prejudice to”表示“在不影响……的情况下”，比如 “without prejudice to the existing rights”就表示“在不影响既有权利的情况下”，试看下例：例 1The contributing parties shall provide security for general average contribution at the request of the parties that have an interest therein.Where the security has been provided in the form of cash deposits, such deposits shall be put in a bank by an average adjuster in the name of a trustee.The provision, use and refund of the deposits shall be without prejudice to the ultimate liability of the contributing parties.
  经利益关系人要求，各分摊方应当提供共同海损担保。
  已提供保证金方式进行共同海损担保的，保证金应当交由海损理算师以保管人名义存入银行。
  保证金的提供、使用或者退还，不影响各方最终的分摊责任。例2FIDIC银皮书69.4。 Without prejudice to the Contractor’s entitlement to interest under SubCause 60.10 and to terminate under SubClause 69.1, the Contractor may, if the Employer fails to pay the Contractor the amount due under any certificate of the Engineer within 28 days...after giving 28 days’ prior notice to the Employer...suspend work or reduce the rate of work.
  在不影响承包商根据第60.10款享有的利息并根据第69.1款终止合同的权利的情况下，如果没有在28天内按照工程师的任何证书向承包商支付应付款项，则承包商可提前28天通知业主，暂停工作或减缓工作速度。
  从以上分析可以看出，“subject to”、“notwithstanding”和“without prejudice to”的含义有很大的关联性，笔者希望通过下面这个方程式使读者能更清晰地理解这三个用语：
  clause 1 subject to clause 2，表明clause 2优先于clause 1；
  clause 1 notwithstanding clause 2，则clause 1优先于clause 2；
  clause 1 without prejudice to clause 2，则clause 1 和clause 2的地位相当，不存在哪个条款优先考虑的情况。试看下例：例摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》。 13.1Subject to clauses 13.2, Seller shall not be in breach of any of its obligations under Contract, to the extent that its performance is prevented, hindered or delayed by an act, event or circumstance, whether of the kind described herein or otherwise, which is not reasonably within the control of Seller(Force Majeure Event). Acts, events or circumstances constituting Force Majeure Event shall include the following:13.1. 1fire, flood, atmospheric disturbance, lightning, storm, typhoon, tornado, earthquake, landslide, soil erosion, subsidence, washout, epidemic or other acts of God;13.2Notwithstanding anything to the contrary provided for in the definition of Force Majeure and/or in Article 13.1, the following shall not be treated as Force Majeure:13.2.1failure to make payments that have become due and payable hereunder；13.2.2...
  13.1根据第13.2款规定，卖方不得违约本合同项下的任何义务，但因卖方无法合理控制的任何行为、事件或情况，不管是否是本合同规定的类型或其他， 致使该履约受阻或延迟的情况除外。这些构成不可抗力的行为、事件或情况包括：
  13.1.1火灾、洪水、大气噪音、闪电、暴风雨（雪）、台风、龙卷风、地震、塌方、泥石流、沉陷、消失、瘟疫或其他自然灾害。
  13.2即使在不可抗力定义部分和/或在第13.1款作了相反规定，下述情况不得视为不可抗力对待：
  13.2.1根据本合同没有支付到期货款；
  13.2.2...
  通过“subject to”和“notwithstanding”两个用语在这里的用法基本上就可以看出二者在使用上的差异。在上例中，从第13.1款规定的“Subject to clauses 13.2”可以看出，13.1 subject to 13.2，故应优先考虑第13.2款（clause 1 subject to clause 2，表明clause 2优先于clause 1），而从第13.2款中的 “Notwithstanding anything to the contrary provided for in the definition of Force Majeure and/or in Article 13.1, the following shall not be treated as Force Majeure” 也可以看出，13.2 notwithstanding 13.1，也可以得出应优先适用第13.2款（clause 1 notwithstanding clause 2，则clause 1优先于clause 2）。

评论
（二）to the extent  “extent”表示“界限、范围、程度”，因此“to the extent”就表示“达到这样的程度或范围”，比如：例 1The Employer and the Engineer shall also be indemnified under the policy of insurance, except that this insurance may exclude losses and claims to the extent that they arise from any act or neglect of the Employer or of the Employers Personnel.
  雇主和工程师也应能够凭此保险单获得赔偿，除非保险没有承保由雇主或雇主的人员的任何行为或疏忽造成的损失和索赔。这里保险和索赔被排除的范围就是“该损失或索赔是由于雇主或雇主的人员的任何行为或疏忽造成的”。例2摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》。Article 80  A party may not rely on a failure of the other party to perform, to the extent that such failure was caused by the first partys act or omission.
  第80条一方因其作为或不作为而使得另一方不履行义务时，不得声称该另一方不履行义务。该范围以“另一方不履行义务是因为一方的作为或不作为造成的”为界，在此“界限”之外，一方可以声称该另一方不履行义务。 Article 88 （1）If the goods are subject to rapid deterioration or their preservation would involve unreasonable expense, a party who is bound to preserve the goods in accordance with article 85 or 86 must take reasonable measures to sell them. To the extent possible he must give notice to the other party of his intention to sell.
  第88条（1） 如果货物易于迅速变坏，或者货物的保全牵涉到不合理的费用，则按照第85条或第86条规定有义务保全货物的一方当事人，必须采取合理措施，把货物出售，在可能的范围内，他必须把出售货物的打算通知另一方当事人。即他是否有义务通知另一方应以“是否可能”为界。
  No Party shall be considered in default of the performance of its obligations hereunder, to the extent that the performance of any such obligation is prevented or delayed by any cause, which is beyond the reasonable control of such Party.
  如果因为无法控制的原因致使履行合同义务受阻或延迟，则不认为存在履约过失。例3摘自《国际商事规则》。(1) To the extent that the performances of the parties can be rendered simultaneously, the parties are bound to render them simultaneously unless the circumstances indicate otherwise.
  如果合同方可以同时履行，则双方应同时履行，除非有情况表明不能同时履行。双方应同时履行的范围就是“能够同时履行”。例 4The Contractor shall design (to the extent specified in the Contract), execute and complete the Works in accordance with the Contract and with the Engineers instructions, and shall remedy any defects in the Works.
  承包商应按照合同的规定以及工程师的指示（在合同规定的范围内）对工程进行设计、施工和竣工，并修补其任何缺陷。例 5To the extent which was practicable (taking account of cost and time), the Contractor shall be deemed to have obtained all necessary information as to risks, contingencies and other circumstances which may influence or affect the Tender or Works.
  如果可行（考虑到费用和时间），承包商应被认为已取得了可能对投标文件或工程产生影响或作用的有关风险、意外事故及其他情况的全部必要的资料。限定的范围就是“可行”。例 6If the Contractor fails to comply with the instruction, the Employer shall be entitled to employ and pay other persons to carry out the work. Except to the extent that the Contractor would have been entitled to payment for the work, the Contractor shall subject to SubClause 2.5 〔Employers Claims〕 pay to the Employer all costs arising from this failure.
  如果承包商未能遵守该指示，则雇主有权雇用并付款要求其他人来实施工作。除非承包商有权获得该工作的付款，否则他应按照第2.5款雇主的索赔的规定，向雇主支付因其未完成工作而产生的费用。
  在这里，“except”排除的范围就是“承包商有权获得该工作的付款”。例 7The Contractor shall be responsible for the adequacy, stability and safety of all Site operations and of all methods of construction. Except to the extent specified in the Contract, the Contractor (i) shall be responsible for all Contractors documents, Temporary Works, and such design of each item of Plant and Materials as is required for the item to be in accordance with the Contract, and (ii) shall not otherwise be responsible for the design or specification of the Permanent Works.
  承包商应对所有现场作业和施工方法的充分性、稳定性和安全性负责。除合同中规定的范围，承包商(i)应对所有承包商的文件、临时工程以及按照合同规定对每项永久设备和材料所做的设计负责；(ii)但对永久工程的设计或规范不负责任。

评论
例 8The Employer shall indemnify and hold the Contractor harmless against and from all damages, losses and expenses (including legal fees and expenses) resulting from a claim under the Performance Security to the extent to which the Employer was not entitled to make the claim.
  雇主应保障并使承包商免于遭受因雇主按照履约保证对无权索赔的情况提出索赔而产生的损害、损失和费用（包括法律费用和开支）。这里的索赔的限制就是“雇主无权索赔的情况”。对雇主无权索赔的情况，因雇主索赔而产生的损害、损失和费用得由雇主承担。 “to the extent”除了单独使用外，还经常和其他连词一起使用，比如“if and to the extent”或“where and to the extent”等，如：例 1Any such instruction shall constitute a Variation if and to the extent that it causes the Contractor to incur Unforeseeable Cost. Services for these personnel and other contractors may include the use of Contractors Equipment, Temporary Works or access arrangements which are the responsibility of the Contractor.
  如果且仅限于此类指示使承包商产生了不可预见的费用，则该指示构成了变更。为这些人员和其他承包商提供的服务包括使用承包商的设备，承包商负责的临时工程或道路通行安排。例 2If and to the extent that the Contractor encounters physical conditions which are unforeseeable，gives such a notice, and suffers delay and/or incurs Cost due to these conditions, the Contractor shall be entitled subject to SubClause 20.1 〔Contractors Claims〕 to claims.
  如果且仅限于承包商遇到了不可预见的外界条件，发出了通知，且因此遭致延误和/或产生了费用，承包商应有权依据第20.1款承包商的索赔要求索赔。例 3The Engineer may also notify the cause for the suspension. If and to the extent that the cause is notified and is the responsibility of the Contractor, the following SubClauses 8.9, 8.10 and 8.11 shall not apply.
  工程师还应通知停工原因。如果且仅限于已通知了原因并认为是因为承包商的责任所导致，则下列第8.9款、第8.10款和第8.11款不适用。例4If and to the extent that such work is attributable to any other cause, the Contractor shall be noted promptly by (or on behalf of) the Employer.
  如果且仅当上述工作是因任何其他原因引起，则雇主（或雇主授权的他人）应立即通知承包商。例 5If and to the extent that any of the risks listed in SubClause 17.3 above results in loss or damage to the Works, Goods or Contractors documents, the Contractor shall promptly give notice to the Engineer and shall rectify this loss or damage to the extent required by the Engineer.
  如果且仅限于上述第17.3款所列风险导致工程、货物或承包商的文件遭受损失或损害，则承包商应尽快通知工程师，并且应按工程师的要求弥补此类损失或修复此类损害。通知和修正的范围仅限于工程师的要求。例6Any such instruction shall constitute a Variation if and to the extent that it causes the Contractor to incur Cost in an amount which was not reasonably foreseeable by an experienced contractor at the Base Date.
  如果且仅当该指令致使承包商承担了一个有经验的承包在基准日期无法预见的费用，则该指令构成变更。例7摘自《联合国海上货物运输公约》（汉堡规则）。 Where and to the extent that both the carrier and the actual carrier are liable, their liability is joint and several.
  如果且仅当承运人和实际承运人均须负责时，他们负有连带责任。
  前面在谈“where”的用法的时候，已经提及“where”在这种情况下的用法。如果纯粹从理解的角度看，我们可以把它替换成“if”，即变成“if and to the extent”。
  
  （三）the same
  “the same”在英文合同中除了用作“the same...as”的固定短语外，主要用来代替前面已经表述过的事物或状况，从而避免重复，比如：例 1No review, approval, acknowledgement or certificate given by the BUYER shall relieve the SELLER from any liability or obligation under the PURCHASE AGREEMENT unless the same is expressly set out by the BUYER.
  买方进行审核、批准、确认或证明都不会解除卖方在本采购订单下的任何责任或义务，除非买方明确指出。
  “the same”在这里表示“买方的审核、批准、确认或证明解除卖方本采购订单下的责任或义务”。如果完整地说，原文应该是 “No review, approval, acknowledgement or certificate given by the BUYER shall relieve the SELLER from any liability or obligation under the PURCHASE AGREEMENT unless that such review, approval, acknowledgement or certificate given by the BUYER shall relieve the SELLER from any liability or obligation under the PURCHASE AGREEMENT is expressly set out by the BUYER（买方进行审核、批准、确认或证明都不会解除卖方在本采购订单下的任何责任或义务，除非买方明确指出买方进行审核、批准、确认或证明将解除卖方本采购订单下的任何责任或义务）”。
  例 2The Contractor shall comply with the Owner’s design and HSE management system and manuals, and any revision of the same. 承包商应遵守业主的设计、HSE管理体制、手册以及对这些文件的修订。
  这里的“the same”代替了“the Owner’s design and HSE management system and manuals”。
  例 3Any repairs or replacements carried out as described above shall be deemed to be effected and made by the SELLER, and the guarantee concerned shall remain in effect provided that the same does not result in any detriment to the GOODS.
  按照上述规定实施的维修替换工作应视为是由卖方实施的，如果该维修替换并没有对货物造成损害，相关的担保仍然有效。这里的“the same”代替了“the repairs or replacement”。
  例 4Neither the BUYER nor the SELLER shall have the right of use other than for the purposes of the PURCHASE ORDER, whether directly or indirectly, of any patent, copyright or confidential knowhow, trademark (Intellectual Property) provided by the other Party and the rights in such Intellectual Property shall remain with the Party providing the same.
  除为执行本采购订单的目的外，买方和卖方皆无权直接或间接使用合同他方提供的专利、版权或专有技术、商标（知识产权），知识产权中的权利仍然属于提供知识产权的一方。
  “the same”在这里代替“Intellectual Property”或者说代替“patent, copyright or confidential knowhow, trademark”。

评论
（四）to that/the/such effect
  “to that effect”一般表示“大意是……”
  例 1The Contractor shall promptly forward to the Engineer duly certified reports of the tests. When the specified tests have been passed, the Engineer shall endorse the Contractors test certificate, or issue a certificate to him, to that effect. If the Engineer has not attended the tests, he shall be deemed to have accepted the readings as accurate.
  承包商应立即向工程师提交具有有效证明的检验报告。当规定的检验通过后，工程师应对承包商的检验证书批注认可或向承包商颁发一个类似的证书。若工程师没有参加检验，他应被视为认可检验数据是准确的。
  “a certificate to that effect” 就是指“和在检验证书上批注差不多的效果”。 例 2The BUYER shall have the right at any time and at its absolute discretion to terminate the PURCHASE ORDER by giving the SELLER written notice to such effect.
  买方有权在任何时候自主决定向卖方发出大意为终止本采购订单的通知以终止合同。
  “a notice to such effect” 即“大意为终止本采购订单的通知”。例3摘自《联合国海上货物运输公约》（汉堡规则）。 Article 9, paragraph 2: If the carrier and the shipper have agreed that the goods shall or may be carried on deck, the carrier must insert in the bill of lading or other document evidencing the contract of carriage by sea a statement to that effect.
  如果承运人和托运人已经商定，应当或者可以舱面载运货物，承运人便须在提单或其他作为海上运输契约证明的单证上作如是说明。
  “a statement to that effect”指“大意就是承运人和托运人同意应该或可以采取舱面载运的说明”。例4摘自《联合国国际货物销售合同公约》。Article 19 However, a reply to an offer which purports to be an acceptance but contains additional or different terms which do not materially alter the terms of the offer constitutes an acceptance, unless the offeror, without undue delay, objects orally to the discrepancy or dispatches a notice to that effect. If he does not so object, the terms of the contract are the terms of the offer with the modifications contained in the acceptance.
  但是，对发价表示接受但载有添加或不同条件的答复，如所载的添加或不同条件在实质上并不变更该项发价的条件，除发价人在不过分迟延的期间内以口头或书面通知反对其间的差异外，仍构成接受。如果发价人不做出这种反对，合同的条件就以该项发价的条件以及接受通知内所载的更改为准。
  “a notice to that effect”就表示“载有大意为反对这种差异的意思表示的通知”。Article 21 (1) A late acceptance is nevertheless effective as an acceptance if without delay the offeror orally so informs the offeree or dispatches a notice to that effect.
  逾期接受仍有接受的效力，如果要约人毫不迟延地用口头或书面将此种意见通知被要约人。
  “a notice to that effect”即“大意为该接受有效的通知”。
  
  （五）in/at one’s discretion
  “in/at ones discretion”意为“自由决定、自由裁量”。例 1The Board may, in its absolute discretion, and without assigning any reason therefore, decline to register any transfer of any share whether or not it is a fully paid share.
  董事会完全有权决定，无须任何理由，拒绝股票转换登记，该股票是否已经全额付清概无例外。例 2If the SELLER does not within the seven (7) days commence, and having commenced, continuously proceed with action satisfactory to the BUYER to remedy such default， the BUYER shall have the right to issue a notice of discontinuance of part of the PURCHASE ORDER, or terminate the PURCHASE ORDER, at the sole discretion of the BUYER.
  如果卖方在7日之内没有开始并继续以令买方满意的方式对这些缺陷进行补救，买方完全有权决定，发出通知停止部分采购订单，或终止整个采购订单。例3The Engineer may, at the sole discretion of the Employer, issue a Test Certificate for any part of the Works.
  在雇主的决定下，工程师可以为部分工程颁发试验证书。例 4Either Party shall, at the sole discretion, assign the whole or any part of the Contract or any benefit or interest in or under the Contract, provided a prior notice of the same shall be given to the other Party.
  合同的任何一方都可以自行决定，全部或部分转让本合同，或转让本合同项下的利益和权益，但应提前通知合同另一方。

评论
（六）as of
  “as of”在英文合同中通常表示“在……具体的某一天”，比如，This Contract is entered into in Beijing as of this 9th day of May, 2007, by and between Party A and Party B（本合同由甲、乙双方于2007年5月9日在北京签署）。“as of”类似于普通英文中的“on the date”，在这个例子中，完全可以将其替换成“This Contract is entered into in Beijing on this 9th day of May, 2007, by and between Party A and Party B”。
  
  （七）inter alia
  “inter alia”表示“among other things”，即“除了别的之外，其中包括”。它是一个拉丁词，通常紧跟意为“包括”的词，如“include, inter alia”，表示“include without limitation to”。
  例1摘自《联合国海上货物运输公约》（汉堡规则）。“Writing” includes, inter alia, telegram and telex.
  “书面”，除其他方式外，包括电报和电传。
  换句话说，“书面”不仅仅包括电报和电传两种方式。
  Article 15, Paragraph 1  The bill of lading must include, inter alia, the following particulars:
  第15条第1款提单中必须载有下列事项：
  即除了“下列这些事项”外，提单还可载明其他事项。
  例 2Parties acknowledge that the Technical Assistance will comprise, inter alia, technical information sharing and technical improvement.
  合同方都知道，技术协助将包括技术信息共享和技术改进。
  
  （八）in witness of
  in witness of 类似于中文的“以资为证”或“以资证明”，基本属于技术性措辞，是放在合同双方签名之前的一个套话。比如，In witness of this, the Employee and the Company have executed this Agreement as of the Day and year first written above。雇员和公司在本合同第一次出现的日期签署本合同，以资为证。
  有时也用“in witness whereof”，意义都差不多。比如，In witness whereof, this Contract is signed in Beijing by the authorized representatives of the Parties hereto on the first abovementioned date。为此，本合同各方的授权代表于上述第一次出现的日期在北京签署本合同。例 In witness whereof, the Parties hereto have caused this Agreement to be duly executed.
  本协议各方签署本协议（以资证明）。
  
  （九）叠词
  法律英语中还有许多类似的中国叠词的一种表述，比如 null and void, any and all, cease or desist，full and complete，save and except, force and effect, perform and discharge，represent and warrant, true and correct，undertake and agree，unless and until 等。叠词就是由两个同义词或近义词复叠在一起使用，形成相对固定或稳定的词组，或是为了加强语势，或是为了措辞严谨。理解的时候只需考虑其中一个词的意义就可以了。试看下面各例：例 1The contract was declared null and void by the competent authority.
  该合同被主管部门宣布为无效。例2摘自《联合国海上货物运输公约》（汉堡规则）。(2)Article 23, Paragraph 1. Any stipulation in a contract of carriage by sea, in a bill of lading, or in any other document evidencing the contract of carriage by sea is null and void to the extent that it derogates, directly or indirectly, from the provisions of this Convention. The nullity of such a stipulation does not affect the validity of the other provisions of the contract or document of which it forms a part. A clause assigning benefit of insurance of the goods in favour of the carrier, or any similar clause, is null and void.
  第23条（2）海上运输契约中或作为海上运输契约证明的提单或任何其他单证中的任何条款，在其直接或间接背离本公约规定的范围内，概属无效。此种条款之无效，并不影响以其作为部分内容的该契约或单证的其他规定的效力。将货物的保险利益转让与承运人的条款，或任何类似条款，概属无效。 例 3Party A further represents and warrants that the Land is free and clear of any and all claims, charges, easement, encumbrances, lease, covenants, security interest, liens, option, pledge, rights of others, or restrictions.
  甲方进一步陈述和保证，该土地不存在任何权利主张、抵押、地役权、权利负担、租约、契约、担保权益、留置权、购买权、质押、他人权利或限制。
  例4The Board shall, in its absolute discretion, choose to ask any shareholder to cease or desist from the illegal activity.
  董事会有权要求任何股东停止违法行为。
  在西方还有cease or desist order，cease or desist notice或cease or desist letter，理解的时候与此类似。
  例 5The bill would permit the judge to order the department or agency to cease or desist from that disclosure and to seek an injunction and a civil damages penalty for unauthorized use after receipt of the order.
  该法案允许法官有权命令某个部门或代理机构停止披露，且可对在接受到该命令之后的未授权使用颁发禁令并对其进行民事处罚。
  例 6The Seller represents and guarantees that it retains full and complete title and intellectual property rights to all materials sold under this Agreement.
  卖方保证，其对本协议项下销售的所有材料拥有完全的所有权和知识产权。例7The User can demand full and complete access to the Information, pursuant to Article 40.
  用户完全有权根据第40条的规定要求使用这些信息。例 8All intellectual property rights in the Products as well as any other documentation connected thereto shall remain vested in the Seller save and except for the intellectual property rights in the information and materials provided by the Buyer in accordance with Article 11.2 herein.
  除买方按照本合同第11.2条提供的信息和材料中所包含的知识产权外，产品以及与该产品有关的其他文件中所包含的知识产权应仍然属于卖方。例 9Save and except expressly set out in this Agreement, each party acknowledges that no representation, warranty, or other promises not expressly contained herein have been made to that party by the other party.
  除本合同明确规定外，合同各方同意，不存在任何没有在此明确规定的一方向他方所作的陈述、保证或其他许诺。例 10The Seller hereby represents and warrants that it is the legal owner of the Products sold under the Sales Order and thus it has the legal right to transfer the ownership in the Products to the Buyer.
  卖方在此保证，它是根据本销售合同销售产品的法定所有者，有合法的权利将产品所有权转让给买方。
  例11If any reason a court of competent jurisdiction finds any provision or portion of this Agreement to be unenforceable, the remainder of this Agreement shall continue in full force and effect.
  如果因为某种原因，主管法院判决本协议某个条款或某部分不可执行，本协议其他条款继续有效。例 12It is hereby certified that the foregoing resolutions have not been modified or rescinded and are now in full force and effect and that the Corporation has the power under its Charter and bylaws and applicable laws to take the action set forth in and contemplated by the foregoing resolutions.
  特在此证明，前述决议未被修改或撤销，全部有效；本公司依据其公司章程、公司规则及适用的法律，有权采取前述决议中既定的行动。例13This Agreement shall continue in force for a period of five years from the date it is made, and thereafter for successive 5 year term, unless and until terminated by one year prior notice in writing.
  本协议自签署之日起有效期5年，除非提前1年书面通知终止，否则将再继续生效5年。例 14There is no legal or other commitment by any party as to any of the provisions in this document unless and until the necessary internal approvals have been given and a formal written agreement has been signed by authorized signatories.
  除非该文件得到必要的内部批准并且双方授权签字人签订了正式的书面协议，否则，本文件任何一方对文件中任何条款都没有法定的或其他的承诺。例 15The Supplier undertakes and agrees to provide current, complete and accurate information and maintain it as current and accurate.
  供应商承诺，提供新近的、完整而又准确的信息，并使这些信息一直保持更新且准确无误。
  例16All the Information provided pursuant to Article 13 hereof shall be true and correct.
  根据本合同第13条规定提供的任何信息必须真实无误。例 17During the terms of this Agreement, the Consultant shall perform and discharge faithfully the duties which may be assigned to it by the Client in connection with the Project.
  在协议有效期间，咨询单位应忠诚地执行客户分派给它的与项目有关的任务。例 18The Assignee hereby assumes and agrees to fully and completely perform and discharge all of the Assignor’s liabilities and obligations under the Agreement.
  受让人在此同意全部承担转让人的在本合同下的责任和义务。
  以上这些叠词用法非常正式，实际上如果只用其中的一个词基本上也不会对合同条款的意思产生大的影响。比如 “represent and guarantee”就只用“guarantee”也可以。同理，“force and effect”只用 “force”或“effect”，而“unless and until”则可以只用“unless”或“until”等。
  （十）“So agree/request/declare/其他动词”结构
  这是英文合同中比较常见的一种表述，使用“so”主要是为了避免重复文中提到的内容，与“the same”类似。但如果用 “the same”，则应将其放在动词之后，即agree the same，request the same或declare the same 等。例 1Unless the buyer has received notice from the seller that he will not perform within the period so fixed, the buyer may not, during that period, resort to any remedy for breach of contract. However, the buyer is not deprived thereby of any right he may have to claim damages for delay in performance.
  除非买方收到卖方的通知，声称他在所规定的时间内将不会履行义务，买方在这段时间内不得对违反合同采取任何补救措施。但是，买方并不因此丧失他对迟延履行义务可能享有的要求损害赔偿的任何权利。例 2The risk in respect of goods sold in transit passes to the buyer from the time of the conclusion of the contract. However, if the circumstances so indicate, the risk is assumed by the buyer from the time the goods were handed over to the carrier who issued the documents embodying the contract of carriage. Nevertheless, if at the time of the conclusion of the contract of sale the seller knew or ought to have known that the goods had been lost or damaged and did not disclose this to the buyer, the loss or damage is at the risk of the seller.
  对于在运输途中销售的货物，从订立合同时起，风险就移转到买方承担。但是，如果情况这样表明，则从货物交付给签发载有运输合同单据的承运人时起，风险就由买方承担。尽管如此，如果卖方在订立合同时已知道或理应知道货物已经遗失或损坏，而他又不将这一事实告之买方，则这种遗失或损坏应由卖方负责。即情况表明“从货物交付给签发载有运输合同单据的承运人时起，风险就由买方承担”，则“从货物交付给签发载有运输合同单据的承运人时起，风险就由买方承担”。例3If the party‘s failure is due to the failure by a third person whom he has engaged to perform the whole or a part of the contract, that party is exempt

评论
真长啊！！  转个帖子累死了！ 不知道有字数限制。。 大家随便看吧。。

:lol

评论
PH哥辛苦了，得找个有心情的时间慢慢看

评论


呵呵！ 那是，周末看这个吃不下饭睡不着觉啊！ 哈哈！ 还是好好休息！

:P :P :P哇是挺多...先留着慢慢看..呵呵

评论
好详细啊~~

不过很书面的东东，还得慢慢消化！

先在此谢过分享

评论
很好，很好，很强大~

评论
好长啊，留个脚印，慢慢看

评论
很厉害。。。看懂英文合同需要了解这些的。。。

评论
mark收藏，辛苦了，谢谢啦！！

评论

加拿大电商昨天我把提单复件发给了客户，今天收到了他回信，如下： Dear Nicholas, please send all shipping documents. We will check B/L copy and we will reply ASAP. Thank you Best Regards ......................................... 加拿大电商刚从事这行半年，对电子行业不了解，自己整理了些，算是学习，供大家分享，也请大家补充。我毕竟是个文科生，对这方面知识严重欠缺。 DVD:英文全名是Digital Video Disk, 即数字视频光
  ·中文新闻 驻扎在北端地区的日本军队向中国发出明确信息
·中文新闻 Bluesky：社交媒体网站吸引了大量当地 X 难民